Projects for Distinction Conducted by 老司机福利社 Alumni
You will find here abstracts and full papers reporting Projects for Distinction completed by former Psychology Majors at 老司机福利社
Abstract: This study investigated the influence of grit as a protective factor against the impact of childhood adversity on item and source memory accuracy. Childhood adversity is defined as experiences related to abuse, neglect, and household dysfunction (Felitti et al., 1998). Drawing on trauma theory and outcomes associated with grit, the study aimed to explore how adverse childhood experiences affect item and source memory in different contexts. A total of 131 participants (Mage = 21.40) completed tasks assessing item and source memory accuracy in both threat and safety conditions, measures of adverse childhood experiences, and grit. Results revealed that emotional context influenced memory retrieval, with better performance in the safety condition compared to the threat condition. Additionally, participants with higher levels of sexual abuse showed better item memory accuracy in the threat condition but not in the safety condition, while emotional abuse influenced source memory accuracy differently depending on the emotional context. Furthermore, grit emerged as a moderator in the relationship between sexual abuse and item memory accuracy in the threat condition, suggesting a protective role in encoding and retrieval processes. These findings underscore the importance of considering individual differences and situational factors in understanding memory outcomes in populations with adverse childhood experiences.
Abstract: Anorexia Nervosa is characterized by distorted body image and persistent food restriction
and can lead to adverse health outcomes or death. This project explored the role of
grit and reward/punishment sensitivity in dietary restriction and eating disorder
severity. Previous research observed increased punishment sensitivity (i.e., excessive
desire to avoid negative/punishing situations drives one鈥檚 behavior) in Anorexia Nervosa.
Habit strength and cognitive restraint have also been identified as critical factors
in Anorexia Nervosa. In this context, habit strength describes how frequently and
unconsciously an individual restricts caloric intake. Cognitive restraint involves
the perceived conscious effort to control or limit food intake through various cognitive
processes such as calorie counting, diet planning, and establishing eating rules.
Grit has been associated with favorable clinical outcomes in depression and anxiety
but has not been explored in Anorexia Nervosa. Using an online data collection platform,
participants with Anorexia Nervosa completed measures of disordered eating, habit
strength, reward/punishment sensitivity, and grit, along with a demographics form.
Sixty-three women with a prior Anorexia Nervosa diagnosis participated in the study.
The results revealed grit is not directly associated with dietary restriction or the
measures of eating disorder severity. However, all measures of grit were negatively
correlated with
punishment sensitivity, and grit effort was positively correlated with reward sensitivity.
Regression analyses indicated that punishment sensitivity, cognitive restraint, and
habit strength significantly predict dietary restriction and eating disorder severity.
Further, grit indirectly influenced habit strength through its effects on punishment
sensitivity, indicating potential pathways in developing eating disorder symptoms.
Abstract: This study investigated the relationship between perceived stress and frontal alpha asymmetry (FAA), exploring potential mediators such as emotion regulation and motivation. A sample of 110 participants completed measures of perceived stress, depression, emotion regulation, and motivation, along with EEG recordings to assess FAA. Results revealed that greater right frontal activity (lower right relative to left frontal alpha power) was associated with higher perceived stress levels, even after controlling for depressive symptoms. Perceived stress was found to mediate the relationship between FAA and difficulties in emotion regulation, highlighting the complex interplay between neural activity patterns and stress and emotion regulation. This study contributes to our understanding of the neural correlates of perceived stress and emphasizes the importance of considering individual differences in emotion regulation and motivation in stress-related outcomes. Further research should explore longitudinal designs to measure situational changes in stress and incorporate physiological stress responses to deepen our understanding of the neural and behavioral correlates of stress perception and inform potential interventions for improving emotional well-being.
Abstract: Social media has become a popular addition to many people鈥檚 everyday routine. Research has begun to study the effects of social media on its users but has varying reports. This study offers an addition to social media research with the consideration of blaming sexual assault victims of varying attractiveness levels. Over 180 undergraduate psychology students鈥 responses were recorded to analyze the relationship between these variables. The researchers utilized a social media questionnaire to measure the level of social media use and rape vignettes and a perceived culpability scale to measure participants鈥 level of blame they placed on victims considered attractive, unattractive, or their attractiveness was not mentioned. The results did not support a relationship between social media use and victim blaming, regardless of the victim鈥檚 attractiveness description. More research needs to be done in the areas of the effects of social media use and differences in blaming victims of sexual assault when their attractiveness is mentioned.
Abstract: Previous research has demonstrated that concealment of a minority sexual orientation is correlated with mental health challenges. Theory suggests that impostor phenomenon may mediate this link. This is the first study to examine impostor phenomenon empirically among sexual minority adults. Five hundred and ninety-nine sexual minority adults (Mage = 27.62) were recruited through social media advertisements and snowball sampling. Participants completed an online survey assessing concealment, impostor phenomenon, depressive symptoms, anxiety symptoms, and internalized homonegativity. Consistent with previous research, concealment predicted both depression and anxiety. Impostor phenomenon meditated the association between concealment and depression and concealment and anxiety. However, internalized homonegativity did not moderate the association between concealment and mental health challenges or the association between concealment and impostor phenomenon. This study fills an important gap in the literature by introducing the construct of impostor phenomenon to the field of sexual minority mental health. When working with sexual minority clients, therapists should ask about their clients鈥 concealment behaviors and experiences with impostor phenomenon.
Abstract: Nine percent of Americans are diagnosed with an eating disorder, and 41.9% suffer from obesity, both of which have serious cognitive, socioemotional, and social consequences (CDC, 2022). Previous research has shown that religiosity (Handelzalts et al., 2017), social media use (Rounsefell et al., 2019), and parents鈥 eating behaviors (Handford et al., 2018) can become either risk or protective factors for the development of poor body image. However, there has been little research that investigates the effect of these on rigid healthy eating behaviors, orthorexia. This research examined the effect of all three factors (parental modeling, religiosity, and social media use) on eating behavior and cognition. A total of 113 participants (Mage = 20.89) completed the Centrality of Religiosity Scale (CRS); the Social Media Use Integration Scale (SMUIS), the Family Influence Scale (FIS), Eating Habits Questionnaire and the Body Appreciation Scale-2. Overall, results supported that public practice of religion and integrating social media into one鈥檚 social routine serves as a protective factor against poor body appreciation and orthorexia, while maternal and paternal criticism of weight, being emotional connected to social media and religious ideology and intellect serve as risk factors. This research can be used in clinical settings to assess the risk of orthorexia and low body appreciation and create risk management plans.
Abstract: Homosexual individuals are an at-risk population for discrimination, violence, and suicide, making it critical to investigate interventions to reduce prejudice against the homosexual population (Strunk et al., 2014). Previous research has found loving-kindness meditation to be an effective intervention in reducing implicit and explicit prejudice (e.g., racism) and increasing prosocial behavior and social connectedness, however, none has been specific to homophobia (Kang et al., 2014, Stell & Farsides, 2015). This research examined the effect of loving-kindness meditation (LKM) on reducing explicit and implicit homophobia. A total of 29 participants (Mage = 23.9), completed explicit (Homophobia Scale) and implicit (Implicit Association Test) measures of homophobia before (pretest) and after (posttest) three virtual sessions of LKM or an imagery (control) condition. Results revealed no differences in pre- to posttest scores for explicit or implicit homophobia. It is possible that loving-kindness meditation is not effective at reducing homophobia. However, potential limitations, implications and future directions are examined.
Abstract: Mindsets are different beliefs that individuals can hold about personality trait stability. For example, regarding intelligence, individuals with a growth mindset believe that through hard work, intelligence can be changed, whereas individuals with a fixed mindset believe that intelligence cannot be altered. The present study aimed to delineate the relationship between growth mindset and frontal alpha asymmetry. Participants completed two resting-state EEG recordings, before and after participants read a passage that either induces a growth mindset, or a fixed mindset. Participants were also asked to answer questions regarding depressive symptoms, general motivation, and growth mindset. It was hypothesized that the growth mindset manipulation would induce a greater change in frontal alpha asymmetry than the fixed mindset manipulation. Results supported that an increase in growth mindset was related to increased activation in the left frontal lobe鈥攁 region associated with positive approach-related behaviors. This provides evidence that mindsets can be induced immediately, and this change is observable on the neural level. The results of this study enhance our understanding of growth mindset and associated neural patterns.
Abstract: Previous research has examined the multisensory theory of perception which is that flavor is influenced by the integration of cues from the five senses: vision, smell, touch, taste, and hearing (Spence, 2015). While much of the research has investigated the effect of individual or multiple sensory information on flavor perception, there is little research investigating which of these senses has a stronger influence on flavor. This research study investigated whether vision or olfaction had a greater impact on flavor perception. A total of 68 participants (Mage = 21.79) drank sweetened water dyed a certain color and with a certain odor. The colors and odors either matched (i.e. purple color, grape odor), did not match (i.e. purple color, orange odor), or had only one sensory cue (i.e. purple color, odorless). Participants had to determine what flavor they perceived the sweetened water to be and their confidence levels in their answer. Results revealed that for the nonmatch condition, participants identified flavor based on color more than odor. For the single sense condition, participants identified flavor based on odor more than color. When two senses were presented, flavor perception was matched to the color and odor significantly more than when one sense was presented. It appears that the influence of sight and odor on flavor perception may be dependent upon the condition in which they are presented.
Abstract: The following research sought to address the best source of information that could be used to influence an individual鈥檚 attitudes and behaviors towards concussions. The hypothesis of the research was that those who read a narrative about concussions by a celebrity would be influenced more than those who had read one by a stranger or expert. The sample consisted of 69 college students from 老司机福利社 who were asked to read one of three narratives by different sources. Following voluntary consent, they read one of the three narratives and were asked to answer a survey related to their attitudes and behaviors towards concussions. The results were scored to determine who would be least likely to participate in risky behaviors that would lead to concussion. No statistically significant results were related to the source of information the individual read. There was a significant difference in attitudes and behaviors based on age between those 19 (M = 27.82, SD = 2.30) and 20 (M = 24.60, SD = 3.27), p = .031, and for those who had no (M = 27.52, SD, = 2.37) vs 3 or more (M = 23.50, SD = 5.20) previous concussions, p = .024. Lack of significance is likely due to the small sample size and further research is needed to understand what source of education would best impact an individual in relation to concussions.
Abstract: Older adults reflect on their lives during Erikson鈥檚 final stage of psychosocial development, 鈥渆go integrity versus despair鈥. Over the years, non-pharmacological interventions were created for older adults in order to achieve this final stage, one being Guided Autobiography (GAB). GAB is typically completed after ten weeks with two-to-three-hour weekly sessions. The older adults would write a two-page paper focusing on a theme before each session. At the session, older adults would read their writings to one another and then have a discussion regulated by an instructor. The current study hypothesized that GAB could improve quality of life, one鈥檚 presence in their meaning in life, life satisfaction, and self-perceived cognition. Additionally, it was hypothesized that a person鈥檚 purpose for reminiscence would focus more on one鈥檚 identity, connecting with others, and teaching others. The results did not produce significant results; however, there were small to moderate effects for quality of life and life satisfaction. Additionally, there were large effect sizes for changes in the different purposes in reminiscence. Furthermore, GAB experience was positive for both participants who experienced GAB on Zoom and in-person. These results show that in a future lockdown, older adults can reduce isolation through an online program like GAB since the experience was enjoyable and did not depend on the format it was received. Despite the current study鈥檚 small sample size, GAB was still shown to have some benefits.
Abstract: Stigma negatively impacts perceptions of individuals who have mental illnesses, and in turn, contributes to self-stigma, unwillingness to seek treatment, and unwillingness to have a relationship with a person who has a mental illness (Byrne, 2000). This study was driven by Gordan Allport鈥檚 contact hypothesis, which states that one鈥檚 contact with a stigmatized group will decrease stigma associated with the group. The current study evaluates how both stigma and benevolence toward people with bipolar disorder are impacted by knowing someone with bipolar disorder and the rater鈥檚 subjective social status. There was not a significant difference in stigma scores for individuals who have contact with someone who has bipolar disorder compared to someone who does not have contact with someone with bipolar disorder, but individuals who know someone who has bipolar disorder scored higher on benevolence than those who do not know someone with bipolar disorder. Subjective social status was significant as a predictor of stigma, while subjective social status was not a significant predictor of benevolence toward people with bipolar disorder. This study provides partial support for contact theory, and enhances our understanding of how positive and negative attitudes about people with bipolar disorder are affected by contact and social status.
Abstract: Empowerment can influence many parts of a person鈥檚 psychology, including the use of in/out group short-cuts when forming an opinion. Looking at this relationship when it comes to political opinions and political parties, subjects were randomly assigned to be given one of three versions of a description of a farm subsidy policy where one version contained a cue suggesting Democrats support & Republicans oppose the policy, another version contained a cue suggesting Republicans support & Democrats oppose the policy, and the third version did not indicate which political party supports or opposes the policy. They then had to rate their own support for that policy. It was found that higher levels of empowerment are generally related to higher use of such short-cuts, meaning that subjects would indicate more support if they were assigned to the condition that indicated that the political party they self-identify with were said to support the policy and indicated less support for the policy if they were assigned to the condition that indicated that the political party they self-identify with were said to oppose the policy. These results were inconsistent with the original hypotheses I developed for this study. In addition to this counter-intuitive finding, it was found that subjects who feel like they are less influenced by their political leaders鈥 opinions are actually more influenced by the part-support cue given during the experiment.
Abstract: Intrusive thoughts are a symptom of many psychological disorders that often result in high levels of distress or thought suppression. In response to distressing events, defense mechanisms are used by individuals in order to cope. Which defense mechanisms are utilized determines an individual鈥檚 defense style, which can be mature, neurotic, or immature and can affect the extent to which one is able to cope with the stressor. Those who are unable to cope with their stressors are symptoms and are in psychological treatment can be grouped as a clinical population, while those who are not in treatment would be considered a non-clinical population. This study investigated differences between the clinical and non-clinical groups in relation to levels of thought intrusion, thought suppression, and defense styles. It was hypothesized that those in the clinical group would score higher in thought intrusion levels while the non-clinical group would score higher in thought suppression levels. It was also hypothesized that the two groups would significantly differ in defense style scores. Instruments were given to those in a partial care program (the clinical group) and students at a university (the non-clinical group) that would evaluate thought intrusion and thought suppression levels (the White Bear Suppression Inventory) and defense style (the Defense Style Questionnaire 40). These hypotheses were partially supported, as the clinical group scored significantly higher in thought intrusion and thought suppression levels. Additionally, the clinical group had a significantly higher level of immature defense style than the non-clinical group, but there were no other significant differences between the populations.
Abstract: This research study outlines an experiment that examined how realistic and biased portrayals of American television affected social stigma towards mental health in American society. This study was a 2x2x3 mixed factorial design and measured the levels of stigma each participant has after viewing video clips of popular television shows depicting characters with the mental illnesses major depressive disorder and bipolar disorder - type I. Each participant watched a realistic depiction of mental illness and a biased depiction of mental illness and completed the Attitudes to Mental Illness Scale (AMIS) after each video. The overall aim of the proposed research was to explore the damaging effects that biased depictions of mental illness in the media have on people in particular, levels of stigma towards individuals with mental illnesses. Results showed that participants who could accurately identify which videos were biased versus realistic had lower stigma levels than those who could not (F(2,108) = 6.03, p < .05). There was a significant interaction between video order, identification and video content: participants who watched the realistic video first and accurately identified the content of the video had significantly lower social stigma levels after watching the realistic video (F(1,107) = 5.29, p < .05). Overall, this research found some evidence to support the hypotheses that stereotyped content in media and accurate identification of mental illness relate to social stigma levels.
Abstract: Previous studies have reported a positive relationship between doodling and working attention and memory processes (Andrade, 2009; Boggs et al., 2017; Kercood & Banda, 2012). The present study aims to investigate why this positive dual-task relationship exists through empirical testing of the Daydream Reduction Hypothesis; stating that doodling improves learning performance due to its ability to reduce daydreaming. In order to test this hypothesis, a close replication of Andrade (2010) was conducted, with an additional shadowing component that manipulated the participants鈥 ability to daydream. A significant negative relationship was found between shadowing and attention, suggesting that the shadowing component impaired participants鈥 performance. Results between doodling and attention and memory were found to be non significant. If the shadowing component were substituted for a task less cognitively demanding, it is possible that we would be able to replicate the results of Andrade (2010), and discover why doodling has been observed to improve learning performance.
Abstract: Two research studies investigated the relationship between mindfulness, attributional complexity and implicit attitudes, which are unconscious associations and preferences. Mindfulness is an awareness of and attentiveness to one鈥檚 experience of the present and attributional complexity is the degree to which one considers a variety of factors when looking to explain the behavior of others. In Study 1, 66 undergraduate students were randomly assigned to either an experimental condition to take part in a 10-minute mindfulness induction or a control condition to listen to a 10-minute control audio recording. After the manipulation, participants completed the black/white Implicit Association Test (IAT) and the Attributional Complexity Scale (ACS). Results revealed a non-significant difference in IAT performance between conditions, as well as a non-significant interaction between condition and attributional complexity. In Study 2, 202 participants recruited through Amazon鈥檚 Mechanical Turk completed the Mindful Attention Awareness Scale (MAAS), the ACS, the Marlowe Crowne Social Desirability Scale (MC-SDS), the Racial Argument Scale (RAS) and the Symbolic Racism 2000 Scale (SR2K). Scores on the ACS were negatively correlated with scores on both the RAS and the SR2K, and scores on the MAAS were negatively correlated with RAS scores. Additionally, a regression model with ACS and MAAS scores significantly predicted scores on the RAS and SR2K while controlling for social desirability. Dispositional levels of attributional complexity and mindfulness can be used to predict both directly- and indirectly-measured prejudice toward African Americans.
Abstract: This research study investigates the application of TimeSlips (TS) with individuals with Subjective Memory Complaints (SMC). TS is primarily used with individuals with dementia, and it has been shown to increase the quality of life for individuals with dementia. TS with individuals with SMC was predicted to increase quality of life and decrease depression symptoms and memory complaints. Participants completed quality of life, depression symptoms, and memory assessments before and after five weeks of one-hour sessions of TS. No significant results were found to support the hypothesis. One significant correlation was found between lower attendance rates and higher depressive symptom scores. The results were influenced by varying attendance rates and a small sample size. Future research is necessary in an alternate setting with more consistent attendance opportunities.
Abstract: Perception of oncoming vehicle speed was examined with regard to headlight usage. Subjects produced speed estimations during daylight conditions on a two-lane rural road for a vehicle with its headlights on and the same vehicle with its headlights off. The speed of the vehicle, which was controlled to five incremented speeds, was estimated to be greater in videos where the vehicle鈥檚 headlights were on. This finding suggests that headlight usage may be an effective means of compensating for individuals鈥 tendency to underestimate vehicle speed by increasing the contrast of the vehicle in the visual field.
Abstract: The bilateral eye-movement manipulation facilitates cognition on a range of cognitive tasks, including executive functions tasks that require a high level of mental effort and sustained attentional-control. The aim of the current study was to investigate the relationship between bilateral eye-movements (BEMs) and frontal-midline theta (FMT) activity, a well-established electroencephalogram (EEG) marker for increased attentional-control. Participants were randomly assigned to either a 30 s central-control condition or a 30 s BEM condition and had their resting-state brain activity recorded before and after the 30 s manipulation task. EEG data from 60 participants was utilized for analysis. Analyses determined that BEMs had a significant impact on positive and negative mood compared to the control group. Changes in FMT power were calculated before and after exposure to post visual manipulation and displayed a general increase in FMT for the BEM condition and a general decrease for the control condition. In addition, analysis of the theta frequency band for lateral electrode sites revealed significant effects at frontal and parietal brain regions after the visual manipulation. The BEM condition demonstrated an increase in frontal theta power and decrease in posterior theta power pre versus post manipulation when compare to the center-control condition. These findings offer support for the occurrence of a neural change after exposure to BEMs.
Peer-Reviewed Journal Article: Ridway, R., Tang, C. & Lester, D. (2014). Membership in fraternities and sororities, depression, and suicidal ideation. Psychological Reports: Sociocultural Issues in Psychology, 114 (3), 966-970.
Abstract: This study investigated whether affiliation with Greek lettered organizations, and gender of a student, influences the student鈥檚 level of depression, self-esteem, and sense of support. These levels will be measured using self-report questionnaires which include the Rosenberg Self- Esteem Scale, Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support, and Beck Depression Inventory. Both male and female college students, 66 and 241 respectively, answered a survey of their affiliation with Greek lettered organizations and the questionnaire pertaining to depression, self-esteem, and sense of support. Of these total participants, there were 138 non-Greek students, 130 sorority sisters, and 39 fraternity brothers. The results of this study found no significant results to support the hypothesis. However, one lean in support of Greek lettered organization was found for self-esteem. Greeks were found to have a higher level of self-esteem. The sample size tested in this study was not even proportioned, so a faulty procedure may be to blame. However, a faulty hypothesis may be a factor as well due to improper analysis of past research. Further testing will need to be done on this topic.
Peer-Reviewed Journal Article: Turner, K.R., Tang, C., Jablonski, J.F. & Martino, S. (2010). Family communication predicts the decisions of adolescents to engage in sexual behaviors. Modern Psychological Studies, 15 (2), 73 - 79.
Abstract: This study investigated whether family communication predicted adolescent decision-making about sexual behaviors and the relationship and communication between adolescents and their parents. Various topics related to sexual behaviors were measured by surveys and questionnaires on family communication. Male and female college students (N=148) answered questions on a survey pertaining to their perceptions of family communication when they were younger, read a scenario, and answered a questionnaire on sexual behaviors. Results demonstrated that females significantly reported better communication with their mothers than males. Males significantly reported better communication with their fathers than females. Females were more likely to report that their communication with mothers would have an effect on their decision to have sex than their communication with their fathers.
Abstract: Evidence has shown that pictures, and more importantly color pictures play a large role in recall (Spence, Wong, Rusan, & Rastegar, 2006). The present research compared memory for textual information when that information was presented alone (text only), supplemented with a black and white picture, or supplemented with a color image My research found that when color images are combined with textual information was an increase in recall over the same images in black and white. The secondary goal of my research was to see if there is a relation between the subjects鈥 learning style (visual or verbal) and recall. I found that verbal learners had an increase in recall for the text only information and that visual learners had an increase in recall for text information supplemented with color images.
Abstract: The ability to detect the emotional prosody of others is important for effective communication and empathy. Prior research has shown this to be dominant in the right cerebral hemisphere. Pranayama is the Sanskrit name for the breathing techniques of yoga. Certain techniques in this category, such as Unilateral Nostril Breathing (UNB), have been shown to physiologically shift hemisphere dominance. This research study hypothesized that left-sided UNB (LUNB) would cause a shift to right-hemisphere dominance, which would increase the ability to detect and correctly identify the emotional tone of another. Participants were randomly assigned to 3 groups: a control group (deep breathing through both nostrils), LUNB, and RUNB. Techniques were practiced for ten minutes each. A test of emotional perception was administered to all groups before and after the breathing exercises. Upon initial testing, the groups did not significantly differ in terms of pre-post changes. However, after a second set of analyses were done, where the deep breathing control group was excluded and handedness was accounted for, significance was discovered. Comparing LUNB and RUNB groups did show the LUNB group to be better at detecting fear via prosody.
Abstract: The current study investigated the potential effects of bilateral eye movements (BEM) and handedness on creativity measured by the Alternate Uses Test. BEM may increase the state interaction between the left and right cerebral hemispheres, whereas handedness indicates individual differences in trait interhemispheric interaction (IHI). Based on the research reviewed, increases in IHI may enhance creativity. In order to test my hypothesis that IHI fosters creative thinking I randomly assigned participants into two different groups. Those assigned to the experimental group performed a BEM task for 30s and a control group performed a similar task, also for 30s, which does not involve BEM. Following their respective tasks, both groups completed the Alternate Uses Test and their relative creativity was compared. Participants also completed a handedness measure, where it was predicted that weak-handers will be more creative than strong-handers. Results indicate no effect of BEM on creativity but that handedness had significant effects on creativity, such that weak-handers significantly outperformed strong-handers on the Alternate Uses Test.
Abstract: This study investigated the relationship between degree of understanding and preference for art and music and how it is mediated by the degree of need for cognitive closure (NFC). This experiment tested 59 participants as they viewed and evaluated works of different styles in art (representational vs. abstract) and music (consonant vs. dissonant) based on preference and understanding factors (understanding artist's meaning, relation to personal experience, and perceived congruence of personal interpretation and artist's meaning). Results supported predictions that greater degrees of understanding were associated with greater preference rating and that NFC mediates preference ratings for abstract art and dissonant music. Individuals with a high NFC reported lower preference and understanding ratings for abstract art and lower preference ratings for dissonant music than individuals with a low NFC. Predictions that empathy and perspective taking would mediate differences in understanding and preference ratings of art and music were not supported.
